Tuesday, March 31, 2015

Notes from RHW. LeRoy is here and nowhere else. Self-Imposed Silence



House of Flying Daggers 

Somebody's knocking on the door of my heart?
Is it true or am I dreaming?
Oh, my lady, please don't depart;
My heart's door is open, come on in.

A marvelous film. I just watched it again. Wonderful narrative. Wondrously romantic. True love is to die for the one you love. True love is like parental love: self-sacrifice and unconditional. Haunting flute music and cinematography are marvelously done. A work of art. A masterpiece in baroque, magical realism. 

This movie and Pulp Fiction are the two films that define me. Pulp Fiction is a religious movie, despite the ultra-violent overtones. 

HTAX( Spring Sunshine by the Lake), the same oval face, the long hair draping the shoulders, the same, sweet, gentle voice, the top student of the class.

Asceticism, meditation, paranormal powers. You must learn to fly with fire and style.

Pride and Silence.
Memories and longings. Truths. Be truthful to oneself. Death.

Life starts with Love and ends with Love. 

Keep a green bough in thy heart and birds will gather and sing for thee every morning.
Be gentle, ever gentle.

Sexual desires must originate from Love. Sex is an act of giving oneself to the Other, not possessing the other.

I write for Cherry, the memories of hand-holding, the unconscious expression of love and desire, and communication and communion.

"Mr Wissai, I'm a good person. I've helped a lot of people. I am a giver. Never a taker. I have never hurt anybody, never said a mean thing to anybody. That's why God loves me and protects me. I have peace, Mr. Wissai, knowing that I'm loved and taken care of by God. Whether or not that sounds illogical and untrue to you, it does not matter to me. The important thing is how I view myself and how God views me. You understand?" 

"Cherry, my dear Cherry, I do, I do completely. I also do know about the secret dreams and silent fantasies of the human heart. Why don't you look up some Chinese meditation flute music on YouTube tonight? Maybe then, you will understand the longings of my heart."


I write for Martha, the unspoken affection and respect, the nobility in bearing, speech, and deeds, the awesome signs of advanced spirituality. 

Truths must be spoken/delivered with kindness. Treat and speak to others the same way you want to be treated and spoken to. 

Aggressiveness is a mask for weakness. Firmness is better than aggressiveness. Aggressiveness lacks the respect and kindness inherent in firmness.  

Educated, literary, stylish, light on his feet, a happy warrior who never raises his voice even when delivering bad news. You must cultivate this ability.

Translate/transmute the patter of empty talk into the argot of real life. 
Warrior ethos. Death is a constant adviser. Live in death helps you understand the meaning of life.

This fucked-up, cruel world is for the strong-minded folks only. Weaklings cannot survive. 

H is for Hawk, W is for Wissai. R is for Roberto. RHW.

You are measured and judged by how you express yourself, in deeds and in words, in the clothes you wear, the car you drive, the way you eat, and how you handle money. A noble person does every thing in a noble way: polite, considerate, pleasant, self-possessed, and alert.  A bum, on the other hand, has allowed the dignity to slip away from him. A bum is not necessarily a person without money. It could be a person without manners, without self-respect, without respect for others. All the bum does is for himself. He uses others, by instinct. He's not developed into a human yet. 

In old age, things begin to take on a startling clarity. I am also able to step back and look at myself objectively, in the eyes of others. We all started from the Self and we reach out, step out, and learn to take The Other into our consideration. That's what love is all about. 

When you eat meat, it should be the meat of a live animal you expend time and energy to hunt and kill, not a piece of a carcass you bought from the store, not part of an animal raised for food, without its knowing so until the moment it was led to the slaughterhouse. Hunting for  good makes you feel like an animal, but the moment of its death makes you feel like a human. And you feel more so as you dress it, cut it into pieces, put them in an icebox, bring the pieces home and store them in the freezer. After a few hunting expeditions, the bloodlust, the primeval call of the wild dies down as you look at the eyes of the animal you just killed, from a distance, with a rifle equipped with a scope, the eyes that just glazed over, unfocused, gray and lifeless, desperate and then resigned, you feel sick and sad and empathetic. Then one day, you bring the hunting rifle to the pawn shop. As you leave the pawnshop afterwards, you feel a return of humanity in you. You now respect life. You learn to tame the anger within. From now on, you only kill in self-defense. You also cease eating meat. 

I no longer dwell on the archaeology of grief or the architecture of my current malady and my looming death. I stay at the present, one day at a time, savoring life, making the most of it while preparing to say farewell to everything I hold dear in my heart. Note that I don't use the word "everybody" as deep down there's nobody, there lies the rub. We came into this world alone. And we die alone. And around us are selfish assholes, not angels. Who says living is easy? Greed and competition for power and benefits makes living a drudge. Some stupid assholes even hanker after empty fame since they stupidly think that fame equates respect. I give no shit about fame, but I do care after about respect. Without respect, assholes would step on you. So you must be careful to navigate through life. Speak only when you have no choice. And speak nicely of and about people, not disparagingly. There is no point in making enemies. Keep your contempt hidden from view. 


We can only understand those who are equal or less endowed than us. We can never understand those who are better than us. That's the humbling truth we must accept. So to those who think that they are better than us and don't want to have anything to do with us, we must understand the reason and respect their wish. There's no point to ask for humiliation and disdain from them. Life is too short for that. 

The book "H is for Hawk" is a difficult book. It is meant to read very slowly, but you will become wiser after reading it. So read it only when you have plenty of time and in a relaxed state of mind. We get out of books of what we put an effort into it. The same as every undertaking in life. Life experiences, especially the adverse ones, make us wiser. What does not kill us, will make us stronger. We have become immune to pains, sorrows, disappointments, betrayals. A man with a dog means he has love within and has learned to trust dogs more than humans. Dogs don't hurt you, but humans always do, sooner or later. Take my words for it and bring them to the bank. 

I daydream and fantasize and think of Cherry/ Salomé. Silent dreams and secret fantasies. That's been the nature of my romantic life. I am a dreamer at heart. I go after the impossible and the far-out. The feasible and the commonplace bore the bejesus out of me. So, I fuck you long and hard, tender and passionate. I fuck you like I have never fucked before. And you are fucked like you have never been fucked before. Together we reach the realm called Love and Care and Concern. And afterwards we no longer feel alone or lonely. Instead, we feel safe and secure. Life is sweet because we each found out that somebody does care. So if one of us dies, the other still has the strength and the equanimity to carry on. Happiness is simple. It's being who you are and somebody loves you just the way you are. I may die at any moment now, but somehow I am not afraid. Love is the Peace that you experience, the Confidence of your Worth, and the Acceptance from someone whom you respect and for whom you have affection. 

Love is to die for the one you love. That's the reason why I love the film "House of the Flying Daggers", a sumptuous, lush, romantic treatment of love. If you have never had a feeling of protection, of self-sacrifice, of giving of your own life for the Other, you don't really know what the fuck Love is all about. 

If you want to be loved, don't be repulsive in appearance, words, and deeds (words and deeds are the manifestations of thoughts. So watch your thoughts). For years I was accused and laughed at for being childish. Of course, my feelings were hurt but in fairness I deserved to be mocked, laughed, and ridiculed. I was childish, pure and simple. I didn't know any better. I acted from instinct. Then solely I began looking at myself from the Other's perspective. It dawned on me that I was too self-oriented and too impulsive. So I made an effort to change to end the sufferings. I am working towards to practicing  silence and eschewing revenge. Life is too short to tangle with the ignorant, the stupid, the envious, the hypocritical, and the vicious. They suffer and want me to suffer as they do. Silence from me breaks the vicious cycle. 
 
(To be continued)


Monday, March 30, 2015

Meditation, Malady, and Mortality

Stream-of-Consciousness about meditation and malady and mortality

Man is a complex and complicated animal. His private self and public persona are often at odds. What he presents himself to the world is usually much better than his true self. He is into deception as well as preservation of his self-exalting ego. Take Thich Nhat Hanh (henceforth TNH), for example. He is a man of immense sensitivity and talents. A "religious" and meditation teacher, a poet, a writer, an entrepreneurial man of skills, TNH has gathered a large following and garnered fame and wealth, but he hurt himself by lying about the damages resulting from American bombing in the town of Bến Tre, by his stern and smug demeanor in gaudy costumes in public appearances, and his lack of peace despite his constant preaching about it (take my word for it. I just know certain things by just looking at a man's face and listening to his voice. So, don't try to lie to me). I have a feeling that deep down he is not an honest man.

I am not engaging in a campaign to besmirch TNH's reputation. There are many people who have done so. I don't know TNH personally and he doesn't know who I am. I'm merely taking him as a prime example of how the lack of honesty is imbedded in human behavior. There are many, many humans like TNH. 

All my life I have been concerned with honesty, dignity, and self-respect. I used to be coarse, uncouth, and crude. I am trying to be better. I was ashamed of some dishonorable acts of mine in my distant past, but I have always been an honest man. I respect facts and truths. I am into dignity and self-respect. I learn from those who are better than me. I am allergic to envy. There is no conflict between a private life and a public persona in me. What you see is what you get. I am not uncomfortable about who I am. I am different. I know that and you know that. 

Lately I have been thinking about what insights and thoughts that I have that hitherto were unknown to mankind. The answer is none. I have no originality in thinking. Nevertheless, I have condensed what I have learned through blood, sweat, and tears the following lessons:

1. Nobody loves the unlovable. If you want to be loved, you must make yourself lovable. It sounds simple and simplistic, but you will be surprised of how many people fail to grasp its truth, yours truly included until very recently.

2. Money is a good, reliable test of love and friendship. 

3. The less worthy a person is, the more desperate he is of being respected by others. So, don't laugh or mock at the stupid, the ignorant, the untalented who are trying very hard to be respected. 

4. If you are really loved by one person, you are very lucky. Despite trials and tribulations, I am proud to report that I have been loved by two or even three women. What can I say? I am a lovable guy. If you take the time to get to know me well, you will love me. That's just as simple as that. 

5. Now I have a malady and mortality is knocking on my door sooner than I expected, I am heavy into trance music, Kundalini Yoga/meditation, dieting, and running to cure myself. I am honestly feeling that although I am in danger zone, I will kick this malady out of the way and live to be until 99 years old and I will die in the arms of the two, maybe three, women who really love me. 

RHW (Roberto Hawk Wissai)
March 30, 2015

Tuesday, March 24, 2015

More Life Lessons from The School of Hard Knocks.


Keep non-ordinary, unconventional thoughts to yourself. If you must share them, write in your journal. Trust nobody. If you mess up a person's ego, you make yourself his enemy. Everybody wants to be loved and respected. 

Stay cool. Say this one hundred times a day. It's your new mantra. It will calm you down. Don't panic. Stay cool. Meditate. Exercise. You will be good as new and stronger, too. Believe me. Yes, you can. Try not to show contempt to anybody, even if the person deserves it. Keep your mouth shut. Go for a walk. Calm down and find peace. 

Strangely, I'm praying for myself. I'm learning to love myself as nobody else would. I'm getting both mystical and down-to-earth at the same time. Once you understand it, the sacred and the profane are two sides of the same coin. Go slowly. Be happy. No hurry. Don't worry. 

Yoga Philosophy

THE FIVE YAMAS OF YOGA 

At the beginning of Patanjali’s eight-fold path of yoga lays the Yamas: the moral, ethical and societal guidelines for the practicing yogi. These guidelines are all expressed in the positive, and thus become emphatic descriptions of how a yogi behaves and relates to her world when truly immersed in the unitive sate of yoga. While we may not strive to reach such a pure state ourselves, the Yamas are still highly relevant and valued guides to lead a conscious, honest and ethical life.

Patanjali considered the Yamas the great, mighty and universal vows. He instructs us that they should be practiced on all levels (actions, words, and thoughts) and that are not confined to class, place, time or concept of duty (YS 2.31).

Ahimsa is the practice of non-violence, which includes physical, mental, and emotional violence towards others and the self. We create violence most often in our reactions to events and others, habitually creating judgment, criticism, anger or irritation. I have found the Buddhist practice of compassion to be an excellent tool to foster non-violence in my life. Compassion is the ability to accept events as they are with an open and loving heart. It is a letting go of reacting to a situation in a conditional and negative way, and replaces those thoughts or feelings with kindness, acceptance and love. At first practicing compassion is hard, frustrating and not fun. But the key is to have compassion for oneself for not having compassion, and to smile at this contradiction. 

Satya (truthfulness) urges us to live and speak our truth at all times. Walking the path of truth is a hard one, especially while respecting Patanjali’s first Yama, Ahimsa. Since Ahimsa must be practiced first, we must be careful to not speak a truth if we know it will cause harm to another. Living in your truth not only creates respect, honor and integrity but also provides the vision to clearly see the higher truths of the yogic path. 

Asteya (non-stealing) is best defined as not taking what is not freely given. While this may on the surface seem easy to accomplish, when we look further this Yama can be quite challenging to practice. On a personal level the practice of Asteya entails not committing theft physically and/or not causing or approving of anyone else doing so–in mind, word, or action. On the level of society, Asteya would be in opposition to exploitation, social injustice and oppression. While not easy, practicing Asteya encourages generosity and overcomes Lobha (greed). And as Patanjali tells us, “when Asteya is firmly established in a yogi, all jewels will become present to him/her.” (YS 2.37). 

Brahmacharya (continence) states that when we have control over our physical impulses of excess, we attain knowledge, vigor, and increased energy. To break the bonds that attach us to our excesses and addictions, we need both courage and will. And each time we overcome these impulses of excess we become stronger, healthier and wiser. One of the main goals in yoga is to create and maintain balance. And the simplest method for achieving balance is by practicing Brahmacharya, creating moderation in all of our activities. Practicing moderation is a way of conserving our energy, which can then be applied for higher spiritual purposes. 

Aparigraha (non-coveting) urges us to let go of everything that we do not need, possessing only as much as necessary. The yogis tell us that worldly objects cannot be possessed at all, as they are all subject to change and will be ultimately destroyed. When we become greedy and covetous we lose the ability to see our one eternal possession, the Atman, our true Self. And when we cling to what we have we lose the ability to be open to receive what we need. 

In a practical sense, the practicing the Yamas eliminates or reduces the accumulation of bad karma as well as prevents the draining of our energy when we lead a false and/or unconscious life. When we practice the Yamas we are striving towards living a healthier, holier and more peaceful life and at the same time we strengthen our powers of awareness, will and discernment. Engaging in these practices is not an easy task, yet by doing so we fortify our character, improve our relationships with others, and further our progress along the path of yoga. 

Saturday, March 21, 2015

Life's hard lessons

A man's life is the sum of his experiences and how he has learned from them.

Wisdom is something you must cultivate, not something you were born with. You don't know who you and others are until and unless you and others are tested. We usually tend to think much more highly of ourselves than we actually deserve. Truths only come to those who are brave and smart enough for them. 

A big "Gothic" sign of the times seen in front of a big "evangelical (from Greek, originally meaning "good news". Yes, good news indeed) church in Houston: “If you really love God, show Him your money.”

Yes, money is often the test of a person's character: how he spends on himself and others. If somebody spends money on you, that doesn't necessarily mean he loves you, though. You could be another conquest. Some men measure their worth by the number of women who agree to go to bed with them. So, ladies, don't confuse money and sex with love. Love is giving of oneself to the other. And that dosen't necessarily involve money. Some men are just tight-fisted, but that doesn't mean they can't love. Most women, however, equate Money with Love 

Be mindful of what you say because it all comes back to you, in one way or another. I have learned that, time and time again, to my sorrow and chagrin. 

Ego is what usually kills a man, figuratively and literally. Very few men know how to use it to advance himself. Very few really have true pride, as I do. 

I am reading Patanjali's Yoga Sutras again. And I sleep better. 

Faith moves mountains, but only Love changes a man. Just love him unconditionally and never bitch. If a man doesn't love you back, then either you are unlovable or just incredibly wrong in your choice of the man. 

You come into this world screaming, but you exit it in silence. Everything evens out in the end. The Yin and Yang of life. 

Assholes love power over others. Real men love Beauty, Justice, and Knowledge, and power over themselves.

The more stupid and ignorant you are, the more you try to act the opposite. 



Thus Spoke Wissai
March 22, 2015

Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali


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Patañjali Statue (traditional form indicating Kundalini or incarnation of Shesha)

The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali are 196 Indian sūtras(aphorisms) that constitute the foundational text of Ashtanga Yoga, also called Raja Yoga. In medieval times, Ashtanga Yoga was cast as one of the six orthodox āstikaschools of Hindu philosophy.

The Yoga Sutras were compiled around 400 CE by Patañjali, taking materials about yoga from older traditions.[1][2][3] Together with his commentary they form the Pātañjalayogaśāstra.[4]

Author and datingEdit

Author

The Indian tradition attributes the work to Patañjali.[5] Much confusion has been caused by the late medieval traditions of conflating Patañjali, the author of the grammatical Mahābhāṣya, with the author of the same name who wrote the Yoga Sūtras. Yet the two works in Sanskrit are completely different in language, style and subject matter. Furthermore, before the time of Bhoja (11th century), Sanskrit authors did not conflate the authors, and treated them quite separately. And modern scholarship shows that these two authors are separated in time by about six hundred years. A third Patañjali is sometimes also invented, an author on medicine, in order to fill out the meaning of Bhoja's verse that said a single Patañjali cured speech through grammar, the mind through yoga, and the body through medicine. However, no major work of medicine by a Patañjali is known to Sanskrit literature.[note 1]

Dating

The most recent assessment of Patañjali's date, developed in the context of the first critical edition ever made of the Yoga Sūtras and bhāṣya based on a study of the surviving original Sanskrit manuscripts of the work, is that of Philipp A. Maas.[6] Maas's detailed evaluation of the historical evidence and past scholarship on the subject, including the opinions of the majority of Sanskrit authors who wrote in the first millennium CE, is that Patañjali's work was composed in 400 CE plus or minus 25 years.[6]

Compilation

The Yoga Sutras are a composite of various texts.[2][3][1] They resemble the Buddhist jhanas.[7][note 2] According to Feuerstein, the Yoga Sutras are a condensation of two different traditions, namely "eight limb yoga" (ashtanga yoga) and action yoga (Karma yoga).[2] The Karma yoga part is contained in chapter 1, chapter 2 verse 1-27, chapter 3 except verse 54, and chapter 4.[2] The "eight limb yoga" is described in chapter 2 verse 28-55, and chapter 3 verse 3 and 54.[2]

According to Maas, Patañjali's composition was entitled Pātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga according to Patañjali") and consisted of both Sūtras and Bhāṣya.[6] According to Wujastyk, referencing Maas,

Patanjali took materials about yoga from older traditions, and added his own explanatory passages to create the unified work that, since 1100 CE, has been considered the work of two people.[1]

According to Maas, this means that the earliest commentary on the sūtras, the Bhāṣya, that has commonly been ascribed to some unknown later author Vyāsa (the editor), was in fact Patañjali's own work.[6]

ContentsEdit

Structure of the text

Patañjali divided his Yoga Sutras into four chapters or books (Sanskrit pada), containing in all 196 aphorisms, divided as follows:[8][9][10]

  • Samadhi Pada[8][9][10] (51 sutras). Samadhi refers to a blissful state where the yogi is absorbed into the One. Samadhi is the main technique the yogin learns by which to dive into the depths of the mind to achieve Kaivalya. The author describes yoga and then the nature and the means to attaining samādhi. This chapter contains the famous definitional verse: "Yogaś citta-vritti-nirodhaḥ" ("Yoga is the restraint of mental modifications").[11]
  • Sadhana Pada[8][9][10] (55 sutras). Sadhana is the Sanskrit word for "practice" or "discipline". Here the author outlines two forms of Yoga: Kriya Yoga (Action Yoga) and Ashtanga Yoga (Eightfold or Eightlimbed Yoga).
    • Kriya Yoga is closely related to Karma Yoga, which is also expounded in Chapter 3 of the Bhagavad Gita, where Arjuna is encouraged by Krishna to act without attachment to the results or fruit of action and activity. It is the yoga of selfless action and service.
    • Ashtanga Yoga describes the eight limbs that together constitute Rāja Yoga.
  • Vibhuti Pada[8][9][10] (56 sutras). Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for "power" or "manifestation". 'Supra-normal powers' (Sanskrit: siddhi) are acquired by the practice of yoga. Combined simultaneous practice of DhāraṇāDhyana and Samādhi is referred to as Samyama, and is considered a tool of achieving various perfections, or Siddhis. The temptation of these powers should be avoided and the attention should be fixed only on liberation. The purpose of using samadhi is not to gain siddhis but to achieve Kaivalya. Siddhis are but distractions from Kaivalaya and are to be discouraged. Siddhis are but maya, or illusion.
  • Kaivalya Pada[8][9][10] (34 sutras). Kaivalya literally means "isolation", but as used in the Sutras stands for emancipation, liberation and used interchangeably with moksha(liberation), which is the goal of yoga. The Kaivalya Pada describes the process of liberation and the reality of the transcendental ego.

The eight limbs of Yoga

Yoga consists of the following limbs as prescribed by Patanjali: The first five are called external aids to Yoga (bahiranga sadhana).

  • Yama refers to the five abstentions: how we relate to the external world. (The five vows of Jainism are identical to these).
  • Ahimsa: non-violence, inflicting no injury or harm to others or even to one's own self, it goes as far as nonviolence in thought, word and deed.
  • Satya: non-illusion; truth in word and thought.
  • Asteya: non-covetousness, to the extent that one should not even desire something that is one's own; non-stealing.
  • Brahmacharya: abstinence, particularly in the case of sexual activity. Also, responsible behavior with respect to our goal of moving toward the truth. It suggests that we should form relationships that foster our understanding of the highest truths. "Practicing brahmacharya means that we use our sexual energy to regenerate our connection to our spiritual self. It also means that we don’t use this energy in any way that might harm others."[12]
  • Aparigraha: non-possessiveness; non-hoarding
  • Niyama refers to the five observances: how we relate to ourselves, the inner world.
  • Shaucha: cleanliness of body and mind.
  • Santosha: satisfaction; satisfied with what one has.
  • Tapas: austerity and associated observances for body discipline and thereby mental control.
  • Svādhyāya: study of the Vedic scriptures to know about God and the soul, which leads to introspection on a greater awakening to the soul and God within,
  • Ishvarapranidhana: surrender to (or worship of) God.
  • Asana: Discipline of the body: rules and postures to keep it disease-free and for preserving vital energy. Correct postures are a physical aid to meditation, for they control the limbs and nervous system and prevent them from producing disturbances.
  • Pranayama: control of life force energies. Beneficial to health, steadies the body and is highly conducive to the concentration of the mind.
  • Pratyahara: withdrawal of senses from their external objects.

The last three levels are called internal aids to Yoga (antaranga sadhana)

  • Dharana: concentration of the Chitta upon a physical object, such as a flame of a lamp, the midpoint of the eyebrows, or the image of a deity.
  • Dhyana: steadfast meditation. Undisturbed flow of thought around the object of meditation (pratyayaikatanata). The act of meditation and the object of meditation remain distinct and separate.
  • Samadhi: oneness with the object of meditation. There is no distinction between act of meditation and the object of meditation. Samadhi is of two kinds,[13][web 1] with and without support of an object of meditation:[web 2]
  • Samprajnata Samadhi, also called savikalpa samadhi and Sabija Samadhi,[web 3][note 3]meditation with support of an object.[web 2][note 4]
    Samprajata samadhi is associated with deliberation, reflection, bliss, and I-am-ness.[17][note 5]The first two, deliberation and reflection, form the basis of the various types of samapatti:[17][19]
    • Savitarka, "deliberative":[17][note 6] The citta is concentrated upon a gross object of meditation,[web 2] an object with a manifest appearance that is perceptible to our senses,[20] such as a flame of a lamp, the tip of the nose, or the image of a deity.[citation needed] Conceptualization (vikalpa) still takes place, in the form of perception, the word and the knowledge of the object of meditation.[17] When the deliberation is ended this is called nirvitaka samadhi.[21][note 7]
    • Savichara, "reflective":[20] the citta is concentrated upon a subtle object of meditation,[web 2][20] which is not percpetible to the senses, but arrived at through interference,[20] such as the senses, the process of cognition, the mind, the I-am-ness,[note 8] the chakras, the inner-breath (prana), the nadis, the intellect (buddhi).[20] The stilling of reflection is called nirvichara samapatti.[20][note 9]
  • Asamprajnata Samadhi, also called Nirvikalpa Samadhi[web 1] and Nirbija Samadhi:[web 1][note 11] meditation without an object,[web 2] which leads to knowledge of purusha or consciousness, the subtlest element.[20][note 12]

Ananda and asmita

According to Ian Whicher, the status of sananda and sasmita in Patanjali's system is a matter of dispute.[23] According to Maehle, the first two constituents, deliberation and reflection, form the basis of the various types of samapatti.[17] According to Feuerstein,

"Joy" and "I-am-ness" [...] must be regarded as accompanying phenomenaof every coginitive [ecstacy]. The explanations of the classical commentators on this point appear to be foreign to Patanjali's hierarchy of [ecstatic] states, and it seems unlikely that ananda and asmita should constitue independent levels of samadhi.[23]

Ian Whicher disagrees with Feuerstein, seeing ananda and asmita as later stages of nirvicara-samapatti.[23] Whicher refers to Vācaspati Miśra (900-980 CE), the founder of the Bhāmatī Advaita Vedanta who proposes eight types of samapatti:[24]

  • Savitarka-samāpatti and Nirvitarka-samāpatti, both with gross objects as objects of support;
  • Savicāra-samāpatti and Nirvicāra-samāpatti, both with subtle objects as objects of support;
  • Sānanda-samāpatti and Nirānanda-samāpatti, both with the sense organs as objects of support
  • Sāsmitā-samāpatti and Nirasmitā-samāpatti, both with the sense of "I-am-ness" as support.

Vijnana Bikshu (ca. 1550-1600) proposes a six-stage model, explicitly rejecting Vacaspati Misra's model. Vijnana Bikshu regards joy (ananda) as a state that arises when the mind passes beyond the vicara stage.[19] Whicher agrees that ananda is not a separate stage of smadhi.[19] According to Whicher, Patanjali's own view seems to be that nirvicara-samadhi is the highest form of cognitive ecstacy.[19]

Philosophical roots and influencesEdit

The Yoga sutras incorporated the teachings of many other Indian philosophical systems prevalent at the time. Samkhya and Yoga are thought to be two of the many schools of philosophy that originated over the centuries that had common roots in the non-Vedic cultures and traditions of India.[25][note 13][note 14] The orthodox Hindu philosophies of SamkhyaYogaVedanta, as well as the non-orthodox Nastika systems of Jainism and Buddhism can all be seen as representing one stream of spiritual activity in ancient India, in contrast to the Bhakti traditions and Vedic ritualism which were also prevalent at the same time. The Vedanta-Sramana traditions, Idol worship and Vedic rituals can be identified with the Jnana marga, Bhakti marga and the Karma marga respectively that are outlined in the Bhagavad Gita.

Samkhya

The Yoga Sutras are built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy, an orthodox (Astika) and atheistic Hindu system of dualism, and are generally seen as the practice while Samkhya is the theory. The influence of Samkhya is so pervasive in the Sutras that the historian Surendranath Dasgupta went so far as to deny independent categorization to Patañjali's system, preferring to refer to it as Patanjala Samkhya, similar to the position taken by the Jain writer Haribhadra in his commentary on Yoga.[29] Patañjali's Yoga Sutras accept the Samkhya's division of the world and phenomena into twenty-five tattvas or principles, of which one is Purusha meaning Self or consciousness, the others being Prakriti (primal nature), Buddhi (intellect or will), Ahamkara (ego), Manas (mind), five buddhindriyas (sensory capabilities), five karmendriyas (action-capabilities) and ten elements.[30][31] The second part of the Sutras, the Sadhana, also summarizes the Samkhya perspectives about all seen activity lying within the realm of the three Gunas of Sattva (illumination), Rajas (passion) and Tamas (lethargy).[32]

The Yoga Sutras diverge from early Samkhya by the addition of the principle of Isvara or God, as exemplified by Sutra 1.23 - "Iśvara pranidhãnãt vã", which is interpreted to mean that surrender to God is one way to liberation.[30][33] Isvara is defined here as "a distinct Consciousness, untouched by afflictions, actions, fruitions or their residue".[34] In the sutras, it is suggested that devotion to Isvara, represented by the mystical syllable Om may be the most efficient method of achieving the goal of Yoga.[35] This syllable Om is a central element of Hinduism, appearing in all the Upanishads, including the earliest Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads, and expounded upon in the Mandukya Upanishad.[36]

Another divergence from Samkhya is that while the Samkhya holds that knowledge is the means to liberation, Patañjali's Yoga insists on the methods of concentration and active striving. The aim of Yoga is to free the individual from the clutches of matter, and considers intellectual knowledge alone to be inadequate for the purpose – which is different from the position taken by Samkhya.[30]

However, the essential similarities between the Samkhya and Patañjali's system remained even after the addition of the Isvara principle,[note 15] with Max Müller noting that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."[37] The Bhagavad Gita, one of the chief scriptures of Hinduism, is considered to be based on this synthetic Samkhya-Yoga system.[38][39]

Buddhism

Vyasa's Yogabhashya, the commentary to the Yogasutras, and Vacaspati Misra's subcommentary state directly that the samadhi techniques are directly borrowed from the Buddhists' Jhana, with the addition of the mystical and divine interpretations of mental absorption.[40] According to David Gordon White, the language of the Yoga Sutras is often closer to "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, the Sanskrit of the early Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, than to the classical Sanskrit of other Hindu scriptures.[41]

According to Karel Werner,

Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and even more so from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."[42]

Robert Thurman writes that Patañjali was influenced by the success of the Buddhistmonastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox.[43] However, it is also to be noted that the Yoga Sutra, especially the fourth segment of Kaivalya Pada, contains several polemical verses critical of Buddhism, particularly the Vijñānavāda school of Vasubandhu.[44]

Jainism

The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating influence of Jainism.[45][46][47]Three other teachings closely associated with Jainism also make an appearance in Yoga: the doctrine of "colors" in karma (lesya); the Telos of isolation (kevala in Jainism and Kaivalyam in Yoga); and the practice of non-violence (ahimsa), though non-violence (ahimsa) made its first appearance in Indian philosophy-cum-religion in the Hindu texts known as the Upanishads [the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (sarvabhuta) and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of metempsychosis/reincarnation (CU 8.15.1).[48] It also names Ahinsa as one of five essential virtues].[49]

CommentariesEdit

Adi Shankara who wrote a commentary on Yoga Sutras

Many commentaries have been written on the Yoga Sutras.[note 16]

Yogabhashya

The Yogabhashya is a commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali which has traditionally been attributed in the discourse of the tradition to Vyasa. But according to Philipp A. Maas, Patañjali's composition was entitled Pātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga according to Patañjali") and consisted of both Sūtras and Bhāṣya. which means that the Bhāṣya was in fact Patañjali's own work.[6] These research findings change the historical understanding of the yoga tradition, since they allow us to take the Bhāṣya as Patañjali's very own explanation of the meaning of his somewhat cryptic sūtras.[6][note 17]

The Yogabhashya states that 'yoga' in the Yoga Sutra has the meaning of 'samadhi'. Shankara in his commentary, the Vivarana, confirms the interpretation of yogah samadhih(YBh. I.1): 'yoga' in Patañjali's sutra has the meaning of 'rest'.[50] The interpretation of the word 'yoga' as union is the result of later, external influences that include the bhaktimovement, Vedanta and Kashmiri Sivaism. But "Svaroopa-pratishthaa" (last sutra of last chapter in Patañjali's Yoga-Sutra), i.e., "resting in one's real identity" is the ultimate goal of Yoga, and it can also be expressed as "union with one's real identity, after putting to rest all movements in the mind", because 'Yoga' literally means 'Union'.

Ganganath Jha (1907) rendered a version of the Yoga Sutras with the Yogabhashyaattributed to Vyasa into English in its entirety.[51] This version of Jha's also include notes drawn from Vācaspati Miśra's Tattvavaiśāradī amongst other important texts in the Yoga commentarial tradition. Even though Vyasa is credited with the Yogabhashya, many hold its authorship to Vyasa impossible, particularly if Vyasa's immortality is not considered.

Other commentaries

Countless commentaries on the Yoga Sutras are available today. The Sutras, with commentaries, have been published by a number of successful teachers of Yoga, as well as by academicians seeking to clarify issues of textual variation. There are also other versions from a variety of sources available on the Internet.[note 18] The many versions display a wide variation, particularly in translation. The text has not been submitted in its entirety to any rigorous textual analysis, and the contextual meaning of many of the Sanskrit words and phrases remains a matter of some dispute.[52] Some modern transaltions and interpretations are:

  • "Raja Yoga" - a book by Swami Vivekananda provides translation and an in-depth explanation of Yoga Sutra.
  • Shri Shailendra Sharma, relying on his own experience as a practitioner of Karma yoga, translated the Sutras into Hindi and included a commentary on them.[53]
  • Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, taught a course in December 1994 on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the substance of which was published as a new commentary.[54]

InfluenceEdit

Indian traditions

Patañjali was not the first to write about yoga.[55] Much about yoga is written in the Mokṣadharma section of the epic Mahābhārata.[citation needed] The members of the Jaina faith had their own, different literature on yoga,[56] and Buddhist' yoga stems from pre-Patanjali sources.[57]

The major commentaries on the Yoga Sutras were written between the ninth and sixteenth century.[58] After the twelfth century, the school started to decline, and no defense of Patanjali's Yoga philosophy was written anymore.[58] By the sixteenth century Patanjali's Yoga philosophy had virtually become extinct.[58] The manuscript of the Yoga Sutras was no longer copied, since nobody read the text, and no instruction in its philosophy took place anymore.[59]

Popular interest arose in the 19th century, when the practice of yoga according to the Yoga Sutras became regarded as the science of yoga and the "supreme contemplative path to selfrealization" by Vivekananda, following Helena Blavatsky, president of the Theosophical Society.[60]

Western interest

According to David Gordon White, the Yoga Sutras popularity is of a very recent date. They were

[v]irtually forgotten in India for hundreds of years and maligned when it was first discovered in the West, the Yoga Sutra has been elevated to its present iconic status--and translated into more than forty languages--only in the course of the past forty years.[61]

It was only with the rediscovery by a British Orientalist in the early 1800s that interest in the Yoga Sutras arose.[59]

Christian and Islamic response

There has recently been considerable debate in non-dharmic contexts regarding the philosophical debt that Yoga owes to the Hindu civilizational milieu that it arose in. Controversy has arisen from the claims by Christian and Muslim religious leaders that the practice of Yoga violates the core tenets of Christianity and Islam owing to its unmistakably Hindu content.[62][63][64][65][66] This was attempted to be overcome by promoting Yoga as divorced from Hindu spirituality, which in turn led to protests from Hindu and Indian groups.[67]

See alsoEdit

NotesEdit

  1. Radhakrishnan and Moore attribute the text to the grammarian Patañjali, dating it as 2nd century BCE, during the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE): see Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453. Scholars such as S.N. Dasgupta, (Yoga-As Philosophy and Religion Port Washington: Kennikat Press, 1924) claim this is the same Patañjali who authored the Mahabhasya, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar. For an argument about the philosophical nature of Sanskrit grammarian thought see: Lata, Bidyut (editor); Panini to Patañjali: A Grammatical March. New Delhi, 2004. Against these older views, Axel Michaels disagrees that the work was written by Patañjali, characterizing it instead as a collection of fragments and traditions of texts stemming from the 2nd or 3rd century: see Michaels, p. 267.
  2. See also theravadin.wordpress.com (2010), The Yoga Sutra: a handbook on Buddhist meditation?, and Eddie Crangle (1984), Hindun and Buddhist techniques of Attaining Samadhi
  3. The seeds or samskaras are not destroyed.[web 3]
  4. According to Jianxin Li Samprajnata Samadhi may be compared to the rupa jhanas of Buddhism.[14] This interpretation may conflict with Gombrich and Wynne, according to whom the first and second jhana represent concentration, whereas the third and fourth jhanacombine concentration with mindfulness.[15] According to Eddie Crangle, the first jhanaresembles Patnajali's Samprajnata Samadhi, which both share the application of vitarka and vicara.[16]
  5. Yoga Sutra 1.17: "Objective samadhi (samprajnata) is associated with deliberation, reflection, bliss, and I-am-ness (asmita).[18]
  6. Yoga Sutra 1.42: "Deliberative (savitarkasamapatti is that samadhi in which words, objects, and knowledge are commingled through conceptualization."[17]
  7. Yoga Sutra 1.43: "When memory is purified, the mind appears to be emptied of its own nature and only the object shines forth. This is superdeliberative (nirvitakasamapatti."[21]
  8. Following Yoga Sutra 1.17, meditation on the sense of "I-am-ness" is also grouped, in other descriptions, as "sasmita samapatti"
  9. Yoga Sutra 1.44: "In this way, reflective (savichara) and super-reflective (nirvicharasamapatti, which are based on subtle objects, are also explained."[20]
  10. See also Pīti
  11. Without seeds or Samskaras[web 1] According to Swami Sivananda, "All the seeds or impressions are burnt by the fire of knowledge [...] all the Samskaras and Vasanas which bring on rebirths are totally fried up. All Vrittis or mental modifications that arise form the mind-lake come under restraint. The five afflictions, viz., Avidya (ignorance), Asmita (egoism), Raga-dvesha (love and hatred) and Abhinivesha (clinging to life) are destroyed and the bonds of Karma are annihilated [...] It gives Moksha (deliverance form the wheel of births and deaths). With the advent of the knowledge of the Self, ignorance vanishes. With the disappearance of the root-cause, viz., ignorance, egoism, etc., also disappear."[web 1]
  12. According to Jianxin Li, Asamprajnata Samadhi may be compared to the arupa jhanas of Buddhism, and to Nirodha-Samapatti.[14] Crangle also notes that sabija-asamprajnata samadhi resembles the four formless jhanas.[16] According to Crangle, the fourth arupa jhanais the stage of transition to Patanjali's "consciousness without seed".[22]
  13. Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India - being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems."[26]
  14. Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, in Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy, 1964, p.27-32 & p.76,[27] and S.K. Belvakar & R.D. Ranade in History of Indian philosophy, 1974 (1927), p.81 & p.303-409.[27] See Crangle 1994 page 5-7.[28]
  15. Zimmer (1951), p. 280.These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage ("bandha"), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release ("mokṣa"), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or "isolation-integration" ("kaivalya").
  16. For an overview of the scope of earlier commentaries: Complete Commentary by Sankara on the Yoga Sutras: Vivarana Sub-commentary to Vyasabhasya on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Tr.fr. Sanskrit, Trevor Leggett, Rev. Ed. Routledge (1990) ISBN 978-0-7103-0277-9.
  17. See James Woods, The yoga-system of Patañjali; or, The ancient Hindu doctrine of concentration of mind, embracing the mnemonic rules, called Yoga-sutras, of Patañjali, and the comment, called Yoga-bhashya (1914), archive.org for a complete translation
  18. A list of 22 Classical commentaries can be found among the listings of essential Yoga texts at mantra.org).Mantra.org.in, Fundamental Texts of Yoga

ReferencesEdit

  1. Wujastyk 2011, p. 33.
  2. Feuerstein 1978, p. 108.
  3. Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. x.
  4. Wujastyk 2011, p. 32-33.
  5. Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. xi.
  6. Maas, Philipp A. (2006). Samādhipāda: das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert. Aachen: Shaker. ISBN 3832249877.
  7. Pradhan 2015, p. 151-152.
  8. Woods 2003.
  9. Iyengar 2012.
  10. Madhvacarya 2008.
  11. Radhakrishnan and Moore, p.454
  12. "The Eight Limbs of Yoga, A Basic Overview". Expressionsofspirit.com. Retrieved 2012-07-29.
  13. Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 377.
  14. Jianxin Li year unknown.
  15. Wynne 2007, p. 106; 140, note 58.
  16. Crangle 1984, p. 191.
  17. Maehle 2007, p. 177.
  18. Maehle 2007, p. 156.
  19. Whicher 1998, p. 254.
  20. Maehle 2007, p. 179.
  21. Maehle 2007, p. 178.
  22. Crangle 1984, p. 194.
  23. Whicher 1998, p. 253.
  24. Whicher 1998, p. 253-254.
  25. Zimmer 1951, p. 217, 314.
  26. Zimmer 1951, p. 217.
  27. Crangle 1994, p. 7.
  28. Crangle 1994, p. 5-7.
  29. p222. A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1 By Surendranath Dasgupta
  30. Indian Philosophy Vol 2, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. p314
  31. p236. Classical Sāṃkhya: an interpretation of its history and meaning, By Gerald James Larson
  32. Reconciling yogas: Haribhadra's collection of views on yoga. By Christopher Chapple, Haribhadrasūri, John Thomas Casey p16
  33. Yoga sutras of Patañjali Sutra 1.23, from Light on the Yoga Sutras of Pantanjali by B.K.S Iyengar
  34. Reconciling yogas: Haribhadra's collection of views on yoga. By Christopher Chapple, Haribhadrasūri, John Thomas Casey. p15
  35. An outline of the religious literature of India. By John Nicol Farquhar. p. 132.
  36. [1][dead link]
  37. Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy," p. 104.
  38. "Samkhya: Right Understanding – The Teachings of the Bhagavadgita – Chapter 3". Swami-krishnananda.org. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
  39. "Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 6: Sankhya-yoga". Asitis.com. 1972-12-12. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
  40. David, John (1914). The Yoga System of Patanjali with commentary Yogabhashya attributed to Veda Vyasa and Tattva Vaicharadi by Vacaspati Misra. Harvard University Press.
  41. White 2014, p. 10.
  42. Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge 1994, page 27.
  43. Robert Thurman, "The Central Philosophy of Tibet. Princeton University Press, 1984, page 34.
  44. An outline of the religious literature of India, By John Nicol Farquhar p.132
  45. Christopher Chapple (2008) Yoga and the Luminous: Patanjali's Spiritual Path to Freedom New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7475-4 p. 110
  46. Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag, (2006) p.66
  47. A History of Yoga By Vivian Worthington (1982) Routledge ISBN 978-0-7100-9258-8 p. 29
  48. Tähtinen pp. 2–5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631.
  49. Christopher Chapple (2008) Yoga and the Luminous: Patañjali's Spiritual Path to Freedom New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7475-4
  50. Sankaracarya; Patañjali; T. S. Rukmani; Vyasa. Yogasutrabhasyavivarana of Sankara: Vivarana Text with English Translation, and Critical Notes along with Text and English Translation of Patañjali's Yogasutras and Vyasabhasya. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2001. ISBN 978-81-215-0908-4.
  51. Ganganatha Jha (translator) (1907). The Yoga Darśana: The Sutras of Patañjali with the Bhāṣya of Vyāsa. With notes from Vācaspati Miśra's Tattvavaiśāradī, Vijnana Bhiksu's Yogavartika and Bhoja's Rajamartanda. Rajaram Tukaram Tatya: Bombay Theosophical Publication Fund. Source: [2] (accessed: January 16, 2011)
  52. Christopher Key Chapple; Reading Patañjali without Vyasa: A Critique of Four Yoga Sutra Passages, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 62, No. 1 (Spring, 1994), pp. 85-105.
  53. "English translation". Shailendrasharma.org. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
  54. "Patanjali Yoga Sutras | Patanjali Yoga | Commentary Sri Sri Ravi Shankar". The Art of Living. Retrieved 2012-07-29.
  55. Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. xii.
  56. Williams, R. (1998). Jaina Yoga. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-8120807754.
  57. Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. xi note 3.
  58. White 2014, p. 6.
  59. White 2014, p. 16.
  60. White 2011, p. 20-21.
  61. Princeton University Press, The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. David Gordon White
  62. Brant, Robin (November 22, 2008). "Malaysia clerics issue yoga fatwa"BBC News.
  63. "Why yoga is unlawful – Islam web – English". Islam web. Retrieved 2012-07-29.
  64. "Indonesia's Fatwa Against Yoga"Time. January 29, 2009.
  65. "Health – Should Christians Do Yoga?". Cbn.com. 2001-02-25. Retrieved 2012-07-29.
  66. Grossman, Cathy Lynn (September 20, 2010). "Yoga poses dangers to genuine Christian faith: Theologian"USA Today.
  67. Vitello, Paul (November 27, 2010). "Hindu Group Stirs Debate in Fight for Soul of Yoga"The New York Times.

SourcesEdit

Printed sources

  • Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint ed.). Calcutta: University of Calcutta. ISBN 978-81-291-1195-1.
  • Crangle, Eddie (1984), "A Comparison of Hindu and Buddhist Techniques of Attaining Samādhi", in Hutch, R.A.; Fenner, P.G., Under The Shade of the Coolibah Tree: Australian Studies in Consciousness, University Press of America
  • Crangle, Edward Fitzpatrick (1994), The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag
  • Feuerstein, George (1978), Handboek voor Yoga (Dutch translation; English title "Textbook of Yoga", Ankh-Hermes
  • Feuerstein, George (translator) (1989), The Yoga-Sutra of Patañjali: A New Translation and Commentary, Inner Traditions, ISBN 978-0-89281-262-2
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
  • Iyengar, B. K. S. (2002), Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, HarperCollins UK
  • Jianxin Li (n.d.), A Comparative Study between Yoga and Indian Buddhism, asianscholarship.org
  • Johnston, Charles (2014) [1917], The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: The Book of the Spiritual Man, Kshetra Books, ISBN 9781484926635
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  • Pradhan, Basant (2015), Yoga and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy, Springer
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  • Ranganathan, Shyam (2008). Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra: Translation, Commentary and Introduction. Delhi: Penguin Black Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-310219-9.
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  • White, David Gordon (2011), Yoga, Brief History of an Idea (Chapter 1 of "Yoga in practice"), Princeton University Press
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  • Wujastyk, Dominik (2011), The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice", Princeton University Press
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Web-sources

Further readingEdit

History
Translations
  • Bryant, Edwin F. (2009) The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. New York: North Point Press. ISBN 978-0-86547-736-0
  • Tola, Fernando; Dragonetti, Carmen; Prithipaul, K. Dad (1987), The Yogasūtras of Patañjali on concentration of mind, Motilal Banarsidass
Practice and commentaries

External linksEdit